Philip Larkin’s attitude towards religion.

 

Philip Larkin, a renowned English poet, approached the topic of religion with a distinct attitude of skepticism and doubt, as seen in his poems "Church Going" and "MCMXIV." While Larkin acknowledged the historical and cultural significance of religion, his exploration of these themes reveals a critical perspective on the declining influence of organized religion in modern society.

In "Church Going," Larkin contemplates the purpose and relevance of religion in an increasingly secular world. The poem's speaker enters an empty church and explores its physical aspects, such as the architecture and religious artifacts. Larkin captures a sense of detachment and uncertainty, questioning the significance of the church and its rituals. The speaker's skepticism is evident in lines such as, "And what remains when disbelief has gone?" Here, Larkin implies that as religious faith diminishes, the role of the church becomes less clear.

Larkin's critical attitude towards religion is also reflected in his depiction of the decline of religious attendance. The poem describes the "cryptic" signs of dwindling congregations, suggesting that fewer people are turning to religious institutions for guidance or solace. Larkin's use of imagery and language, such as "a few thousand backsides" and "and at the end, / The ruin of a farm," conveys a sense of desolation and decay associated with the waning influence of religion.

Similarly, in "MCMXIV," Larkin explores the theme of religion in the context of World War I. The poem portrays the loss of innocence and the shattered illusions of the pre-war era. Larkin describes a time when people gathered in public spaces, seemingly unaware of the impending devastation. The poem emphasizes the contrast between the idealized past and the harsh realities of war.

In relation to religion, "MCMXIV" suggests that the war led to a questioning of traditional beliefs and values. Larkin describes a war memorial as a "place of workship" where people gather to honor the fallen. However, the poem subtly implies that this act of remembrance has become a substitute for religious faith. The lines, "names in alphabets of steel / … as if their final bargains were made in clubs," hint at the notion that commemoration has replaced religious devotion, and the church no longer provides solace in times of tragedy.

While Larkin's attitude towards religion can be seen as critical, it is important to note that his exploration of the topic is complex and nuanced. He does not outright dismiss the role of religion in society but raises questions about its relevance and the changing values of modernity. Larkin's skepticism reflects a broader cultural shift towards secularism and the declining influence of organized religion.

In conclusion, Larkin's attitude towards religion, as depicted in "Church Going" and "MCMXIV," is characterized by skepticism, doubt, and a critical exploration of its diminishing significance. Through his poetry, Larkin questions the purpose and relevance of religious institutions in modern society, reflecting a broader societal shift towards secularism. While acknowledging the historical and cultural importance of religion, Larkin's poems reveal his contemplation of the decline of religious faith and the shifting values of the contemporary world.

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‘Pike’ and ‘The Jaguar’ as a modern poem/view of modern culture.

 

"Pike" and "The Jaguar," two notable poems by Ted Hughes, can be seen as exemplars of modern poetry in their exploration of themes, employment of vivid imagery, and engagement with the complexities of the modern world.

In "Pike," Hughes delves into the primal instincts and inherent violence present in both the natural world and human nature. This exploration aligns with the modernist sensibilities of the early 20th century, which sought to challenge traditional norms and expose the darker aspects of existence. Hughes employs vivid imagery to evoke the physical presence of the pike, describing it as "Pike, three inches long, perfect / Pike in all parts, green tigering the gold." This imagery not only captures the essence of the creature but also serves as a metaphor for the hidden violence and power that lurks beneath the surface of life.

Furthermore, Hughes uses the pike as a symbol to reflect the complexities of the modern world. The pike's predatory nature and survival instincts mirror the aggressive and competitive aspects of human society. By exploring the inherent violence in nature and human behavior, Hughes confronts the realities of the modern world, challenging conventional notions of harmony and tranquility. In this way, "Pike" engages with the modernist tradition of questioning and critiquing established norms.

Similarly, "The Jaguar" can be viewed as a modern poem due to its exploration of captivity, power, and the longing for freedom. The poem is set in a zoo, a microcosm of the modern world where confinement and artificial structures restrict the natural instincts of wild creatures. Hughes vividly describes the monotonous existence of the captive animals, highlighting their lack of freedom and vitality. The jaguar emerges as a symbol of untamed power, defying the constraints imposed upon it. The poem captures the yearning for liberation and the inherent desire to break free from societal limitations—a theme that resonates with the modernist ethos of challenging authority and seeking individual autonomy.

Moreover, Hughes' use of vivid and sensory imagery in "The Jaguar" contributes to its modernist character. He employs rich and evocative language, such as "And the apes yawn and adore their fleas in the sun" and "The parrots shriek as if they were on fire, or strut," to paint a vibrant picture of the zoo environment. This attention to sensory detail immerses the reader in the scene, evoking a visceral response and enhancing the modernist emphasis on individual experience and subjective perception.

Additionally, both "Pike" and "The Jaguar" exhibit a fragmented and non-linear structure, which is another hallmark of modern poetry. Hughes does not adhere to a strict narrative or conventional form, instead opting for a fragmented approach that mirrors the chaotic and fragmented nature of the modern world. This fragmentation allows for a multiplicity of interpretations and encourages readers to engage actively with the poems, piecing together their own understanding of the themes and imagery presented.

In conclusion, "Pike" and "The Jaguar" can be considered modern poems due to their exploration of primal instincts, engagement with the complexities of the modern world, vivid imagery, and fragmented structure. Ted Hughes' ability to capture the essence of the natural world, delve into the darker aspects of human existence, and challenge established norms aligns with the modernist tradition of pushing the boundaries of poetic expression. Through these poems, Hughes invites readers to confront the complexities of the modern condition and engage with the vibrant and transformative power of poetic language.

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Critical survey of Ted Hughes poetry

 

Ted Hughes, one of the most influential poets of the 20th century, explored various themes and subjects in his poetry, including the natural world and the primal instincts of animals. Two of his notable poems, "Pike" and "The Jaguar," exemplify his unique style and his ability to capture the essence of the animal kingdom while delving into deeper human emotions and experiences.

In "Pike," Hughes presents a vivid and menacing portrayal of the predatory fish. The poem begins by describing the pike's physical attributes with meticulous detail, emphasizing its power and formidable presence. The language used is both precise and evocative, allowing readers to visualize the pike's "green tigering the gold" and its "jaws that hold like clamps." This attention to detail and imagery not only showcases Hughes' poetic prowess but also reflects his fascination with the natural world.

As the poem progresses, Hughes delves deeper into the pike's nature and its relationship with its environment. He explores the pike's predatory instincts and its need to hunt and kill, emphasizing the violence inherent in its existence. The line "Three we kept behind glass, / Jungled in weed" captures the pike's captivity, suggesting that it represents a primal force that is difficult to control or contain. This exploration of the primal instincts of the pike serves as a metaphor for the darker aspects of human nature, highlighting the presence of violence and survival instincts within all living beings.

Similarly, in "The Jaguar," Hughes captures the untamed spirit and wild energy of the majestic big cat. The poem takes place in a zoo, where the animals are confined, yet the jaguar stands out as a symbol of untamed power and freedom. The imagery used to describe the jaguar is vibrant and dynamic, with phrases like "spin of will" and "stir of king" conveying the animal's restless energy. Hughes contrasts the mundane and dreary surroundings of the zoo with the electrifying presence of the jaguar, creating a sense of rebellion and longing for freedom.

"The Jaguar" also explores the human desire for liberation and the need to break free from societal constraints. The poem ends with the lines "There is no cage to him / More than to the visionary his cell," suggesting that the jaguar, despite being physically confined, possesses an inner freedom that transcends its physical limitations. This theme of inner liberation resonates with readers and invites them to reflect on their own desires for freedom and authenticity.

Both "Pike" and "The Jaguar" showcase Hughes' distinctive style, characterized by vivid imagery, precise language, and a deep connection with the natural world. These poems demonstrate his ability to capture the essence of animals and use them as metaphors to explore complex human emotions and experiences.

In conclusion, Ted Hughes' poems "Pike" and "The Jaguar" exemplify his poetic mastery and his exploration of the natural world and human nature. Through his precise imagery and evocative language, Hughes captures the primal instincts of animals and delves into deeper human emotions and desires. His ability to interweave the natural and human realms in his poetry creates a rich tapestry of meaning and invites readers to reflect on their own place within the intricate web of existence.

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Existentialism with reference to “Fern hill” and “Do not go gentle into that good night”

 

Existentialism is a philosophical movement that emerged in the 20th century, exploring the individual's existence and the meaning of life. It emphasizes the freedom and responsibility of individuals to make choices and create their own meaning in an uncertain and often absurd world. When discussing existentialism in relation to Dylan Thomas's poem "Fern Hill" and Dylan Thomas's "Do not go gentle into that good night," we can explore themes of time, mortality, and the human condition.

"Fern Hill" is a nostalgic and reflective poem that portrays the passage of time and the loss of innocence. It explores the existential theme of human existence in the face of an inevitable and uncontrollable force—time. The speaker reminisces about his childhood experiences at Fern Hill, a rural landscape filled with beauty and joy. However, as time progresses, the innocence and joy of the speaker's youth fade away, giving way to a realization of mortality and the transient nature of life.

In the context of existentialism, "Fern Hill" raises questions about the meaning of life and the significance of human existence. The speaker's longing for the past and the loss of innocence can be seen as an expression of the human desire to find meaning and hold onto fleeting moments. The poem suggests that the passage of time ultimately robs individuals of their innocence and youthful vitality, leaving them to confront the existential realities of aging, mortality, and the transience of existence.

Similarly, "Do not go gentle into that good night" explores existential themes but in a different manner. The poem is a villanelle, a highly structured form of poetry, and it addresses the universal topic of death. The poem implores individuals to resist death and fight against its inevitability, urging them to live fully until the end. It portrays various characters, including wise men, good men, wild men, and grave men, who are encouraged to rage against the dying of the light.

From an existentialist perspective, "Do not go gentle into that good night" captures the existential struggle against the limits and constraints of human existence. It emphasizes the importance of individual choice, defiance, and the refusal to accept fate passively. The poem suggests that individuals should strive to live authentically, resisting the despair and resignation that can arise when faced with mortality. By raging against death, the poem implies that individuals can assert their freedom and affirm their existence in the face of the inevitable.

In both "Fern Hill" and "Do not go gentle into that good night," existentialist themes of time, mortality, and the human condition are explored. These poems highlight the tension between the desire for meaning and the harsh realities of existence. They encourage reflection on the fleeting nature of life, the choices individuals make, and the existential struggle to find purpose and create meaning in an uncertain world.

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Major themes in Larkin’s poetry with reference to “Church” and MCMXIV”

 

Philip Larkin, one of the most prominent English poets of the 20th century, is known for his contemplative and often pessimistic reflections on various aspects of life. Two of his notable poems, "Church Going" and "MCMXIV," touch upon major themes that are prevalent throughout his body of work.

In "Church Going," Larkin explores the theme of the loss of religious faith and the declining significance of religion in the modern world. The poem begins with the speaker entering an empty church out of curiosity. He wanders through the building, observing its architecture, religious artifacts, and the absence of worshippers. Larkin captures the dwindling attendance and the speaker's own skepticism about the purpose and future of such places of worship. He muses on the waning influence of religion and questions its relevance in contemporary society. Larkin's portrayal of the church as a relic of the past reflects his contemplation of the erosion of faith in an increasingly secular world.

Similarly, "MCMXIV" (1914 in Roman numerals) explores themes of nostalgia and loss, particularly in the context of World War I. The poem reflects upon the innocent pre-war era and contrasts it with the brutal realities of the conflict. Larkin vividly describes the lives of ordinary people before they were affected by the war's devastation. Through his depiction of streets, shops, and people going about their daily lives, he creates a vivid image of a peaceful and simpler time. However, the poem takes a darker turn as Larkin introduces the war memorial, highlighting the loss of innocence and the irreversible changes brought about by the conflict. The poem ultimately captures a sense of nostalgia for a lost world and mourns the loss of lives and the shattered illusions of the past.

Another recurring theme in Larkin's poetry, evident in both "Church Going" and "MCMXIV," is the contemplation of time and mortality. In "Church Going," the speaker reflects on the transient nature of human existence compared to the enduring presence of the church. The poem suggests that while individuals may come and go, the church stands as a symbol of continuity and permanence. This theme is echoed in "MCMXIV" as well, as Larkin juxtaposes the idealized past with the reality of the present. The poem highlights the passage of time and its impact on society, conveying a sense of loss and the inevitability of change. Larkin often uses imagery of decay and decline to underscore the fleeting nature of life and the ultimate futility of human endeavors.

Moreover, Larkin's poetry often contains a social and cultural critique. In "Church Going," he critiques the loss of religious faith and questions the relevance of organized religion in a modern and secular society. The poem presents the church as a relic of the past, serving as a commentary on the erosion of traditional beliefs and the changing values of contemporary society. Similarly, "MCMXIV" offers a critical perspective on the impact of war. Larkin portrays the war as a rupture in history, disrupting the idealized world of the past and exposing the harsh realities of conflict. The poem reflects on the loss of innocence, the destruction of societal structures, and the disintegration of traditional values, offering a poignant critique of the human condition.

In summary, "Church Going" and "MCMXIV" encapsulate several major themes present in Philip Larkin's poetry. These themes include the loss of religious faith, nostalgia and loss, the contemplation of time and mortality, and social and cultural critique. Through his introspective and often somber reflections, Larkin explores the complexities of human existence, the changing nature of society, and the challenges of finding meaning and purpose in a rapidly evolving world.

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Women Figures in " The Waste Land "by T.S.Eliot

T.S Eliot is one of the most important poets of modern English poetry. His masterpiece The Waste Land, published in 1922 is one of the most important poems of modernist poetry. Through The Waste Land, Eliot has depicted the reality of the society. The poem has been structurally divided into five parts namely “The Burial of the Dead”, “A Game of Chess”, “The Fire Sermon”, “Death by Water” and “What the Thunder Said”. Apart from the fourth part, “Death by Water”, Eliot has used the women as the dominant image throughout the poem.

The poem is introduced through a quotation alluded from the Satyrican of Petronius written in a Latin language. The introduction tells a story of Appollo who is mythological figure that gave a woman an immortal life .She didn’t ask for youth, so she wasn’t given eternal youth. She lived and became very old, weak and fearful creature. When the old woman was asked about her wish, she said (I wish to die) Eliot opens his poem by this story to show that the modern man is living a death –in-life like this woman.

The second woman is Madam Sosostris; she is a fortune teller and an image that he borrows from the classical works. In the past people believe in superstitions details and they used to visit this woman to prophesy but for good reasons since they thought it would help them know how to get water from the Nile River to irrigate their land. In modern life she is speaking about death by water and not as a source of life.

Belladonna, which means "beautiful lady", refers in this case to the Virgin Mary.  In other words, Eliot associates the image of a beautiful woman with the spiritual beauty of Christ's Mother. There was a painting of virgin Marry drown by Leonardo da Vinci a very famous Italian painter and she is a symbol of purity and sublime qualities of the woman of the past that are not in the women of the present.

The game of Chess is an allusion to a significant work of art, drama written by Thomas Middleton who is a dramatist of the early 17th century. The game of Chess is known with another significant title which is Women Beware Women as Eliot states has a scene where a mother in law is distracted by a game of chess while her daughter-in-law is being raped in the other room.

Two figures of women Dido and Cleopatra are suggested here as a juxtaposition to the modern situation reminding people of the kind of women who were in love and who would kill themselves for the sake of their lovers

Philomel is another women figure in the classical work of Ovid. The reason he chose her because in the mythological story is raped by a powerful barbarous king Tereus and he was her sister's husband, then Procne transferred her into a nightingale. The myth says that the voice of the nightingale was always heard by the people; so they learned a lesson that this should not happen and this evil wrong thing that happened to her should not happen and they learn a lesson from the experience she went through.

Eliot is drawing a picture of all women, of their suffering, how they feel although they have luxury and all the background you have seen before but they feel lonely.  and isolated and the loneliness they feel is disturbing, the woman he described wants the company she is afraid from being alone, she needs someone. Bad is repeated to emphasize that she really feels bad about the situation. It suggests that even the word thinking a meaningless word and this is a link with the earlier suggestion that modern man can’t say anything because he knows nothing but a broken image; they are saying nothing because they know nothing.

Ophelia, a character alluded from Shakespeare's Hamlet. He makes a comparison between Ophelia who gone mad from the shock when she knew that her lover has killed her father, with the modern woman who doesn’t react under any conditions. Ophelia represents a sensitive woman who stands in a great contrast with the rich woman and Lil who are insensitive and cold in their relations with their husbands.

In conclusion, Eliot draws all these kinds of women figures from the past in comparison to situations that is happening in the present time. That the modern men need to wake up and beware of his surroundings.

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What is a theme in literature? Explain the key themes of "The Second Coming" by WB Yeats and the concept of widening gyre

The theme in Literature:

As a literary device, theme refers to the central, deeper meaning of a written work. Writers typically will convey the theme of their work and allow the reader to perceive and interpret it, rather than overtly or directly state the theme. The theme is often what creates a memorable and significant experience of a literary work for the reader. So we can say that a literary theme is the main idea or underlying meaning a writer explores in a novel, short story, or other literary work. The theme of a story can be conveyed using characters, setting, dialogue, plot, or a combination of all of these elements.

Key themes in WB Yeats "The Second Coming": 

Civilisation, Chaos and Control

“The Second Coming” presents a nightmarish apocalyptic scenario, as the speaker describes human beings’ increasing loss of control and tendency towards violence and anarchy. Surreal images fly at the reader thick and fast, creating an unsettling atmosphere that suggests a world on the brink of destruction.

Yet for all its metaphorical complexity, “The Second Coming” actually has a relatively simple message: it basically predicts that time is up for humanity, and that civilization as we know it is about to be undone. Yeats wrote this poem right after World War I, a global catastrophe that killed millions of people. Perhaps it’s unsurprising, then, that the poem paints a bleak picture of humanity, suggesting that civilization’s sense of progress and order is only an illusion.

With the above in mind, the first stanza’s challenging imagery starts to make more sense. The “falconer,” representing humanity’s attempt to control its world, has lost its “falcon” in the turning “gyre” (the gyre is an image Yeats uses to symbolize grand, sweeping historical movements as a kind of spiral). These first lines could also suggest how the modern world has distanced people from nature (represented here by the falcon). In any case, it’s clear that whatever connection once linked the metaphorical falcon and falconer has broken, and now the human world is spiraling into chaos.

Indeed, the poem suggests that though humanity might have looked like it was making progress over the past “twenty centuries”—via seemingly ever-increasing knowledge and scientific developments, for example—the First World War proved people to be as capable of self-destruction as ever. “Anarchy” was “loosed upon the world,” along with tides of blood (which clearly evoke the mass death of war). “Innocence” was just a “ceremony,” now “drowned.” The “best” people lack “conviction,” which suggests they're not bothering to do anything about this nightmarish reality, while the “worst” people seem excited and eager for destruction. The current state of the world, according to the speaker, proves that the "centre"—that is, the foundation of society—was never very strong.

In other words, humanity’s supposed arc of progress has been an illusion. Whether the poem means that humanity has lost its way or never knew it to begin with is unclear, but either way the promises of modern society—of safety, security, and human dignity—have proven empty. And in their place, a horrific creature has emerged—a grotesque perversion of the “Second Coming” promised by Christianity, during which Jesus Christ is supposed to return to the earth and invite true believers to heaven. This Second Coming is clearly not Jesus, but instead a “rough beast” that humanity itself has woken up (perhaps, the first stanza implies, by the incessant noise of its many wars).

With this final image of the beast, the poem indicates that while humanity seemed to get more civilized in the 2,000 years that followed Christ's birth, in reality people have been sowing the seeds of their own destruction all along. This “rough beast” is now “pitilessly” slouching toward the birthplace of Jesus—likely in order to usher in a new age of “darkness” and “nightmare.”

Morality and Christianity

“The Second Coming” offers an unsettling take on Christian morality, suggesting that it is not the stable and reliable force that people believe it to be. The poem clearly alludes to the biblical Book of Revelation from the start, in which, put simply, Jesus returns to Earth to save the worthy. According to the Bible, this is meant to happen when humanity reaches the end times: an era of complete war, famine, destruction and hatred. The poem suggests that the end times are already happening because humanity has lost all sense of morality—and perhaps that this morality was only an illusion to begin with.

In the first stanza, the speaker describes the chaos, confusion, and moral weakness that have caused “things” to “fall apart.” In the second, the poem makes it clear that it’s a specifically Christian morality that is being undone. In describing this wide-ranging destruction, the poem asks whether Christian morality was built on weak foundations in the first place—that is, perhaps humanity was never really moral, but just pretended to be.

The first stanza's imagery develops this sense of morality is turned upside down: good and evil (the "best" and "worst") are no longer the reliable categories that they once were, replaced by “mere anarchy” (“mere” means something like “pure” here). Humanity has drenched itself in blood—the “blood-dimmed tide”—suggesting that morality was only ever a “ceremony,” a performance that conjured the illusion that humankind was "innocent."

What's more, the poem suggests that no one—not even Jesus—can remedy this bleak reality. The biblical Book of Revelation predicts a kind of final reckoning in which people essentially get what they deserve based on their moral behavior and religious virtues; it indicates that Jesus will come to save those who are worthy of being saved. But “The Second Coming” offers no such comfort.

Instead, in the first line of the second stanza the poem hints that a moment of divine intervention must be at hand after the chaos of the first stanza ("surely some revelation is at hand"). And, as it turns out, "some revelation" is at hand. But rather than returning the world to peace, this new revelation makes things worse: a new and grotesque beast heads toward Bethlehem, the birthplace of Jesus, to be brought into the world. If Jesus was the figurehead for a moral movement, this new beastly leader is the figurehead of a new world of “anarchy,” in which the “best” people (likely the most moral people) lack the courage of their convictions and the “worst” are allowed to thrive. In other words, the poem portrays Christian morality and prophecy as weak, or even proven false, in the face of the violence and destruction that humans have created.

The “blank gaze” of this new creature provides further evidence of just how hopeless the situation is. This being might have the head of a “man,” but it doesn’t have moral sense—instead, it is “pitiless.” It is arriving to preside over “blood-dimmed tide[s]” and “drowned’ “innocence”—not a world of kindness, charity, and justice. Its sphinx-like appearance is also deliberately at odds with Christian imagery, which further suggests a break with Christian morality. Meanwhile, the “Spiritus Mundi” mentioned by the poem is what Yeats thought of as the world’s collective unconscious, from which the poet could draw insight. This vision of the beast, then, is suggestive of a worldwide shift into “anarchy,” as the collective mind of humanity lets go of morality.

“The Second Coming” is a deeply ambiguous poem. Indeed, Yeats revised specific cultural references out of the poem before its publication. But there’s no mistaking that this is a bleak vision of the future of humankind, one which presents morality as a kind of collective dream that is now turning into a nightmare.

Concept of Widening Gyre:

The Widening Gyre may refer to the first line of the poem by Irish poet W. B. Yeats "The Second Coming". The ‘gyre’ is a nod to Yeats’s mystical belief that history repeats itself in cycles. The widening gyre is political polarization, where a mad rush to more and more extreme positions is the dominant political strategy, presided over by the institutionalized, unquestioned power of Big Politics. The widening gyre is Gresham’s Law, not for money but for people and ideas. But the gyre is ‘widening’: it is getting further and further away from its centre, its point of origin. In short, it’s losing control, and ‘the centre cannot hold’. It’s almost been ‘twenty centuries’, or 2,000 years, since Christ came to Earth in human form and was crucified. Perhaps it will not be a Christ in human form, but something altogether different. The reference to Spiritus Mundi, literally ‘spirit of the world’, is, like the ‘gyre’, another allusion to Yeats’s beliefs: for Yeats, the Spiritus Mundi was a sort of collective soul containing all of mankind’s cultural memories – not just Christian memories, but those from other societies. 

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Analysis of Literary Devices in “The Second Coming”

  literary devices are tools the writers use to convey emotions, ideas, and beliefs. With the help of these devices, they make their texts appealing to the reader. Yeats has also employed some literary devices in this poem to prophesize the future of the world. The analysis of some of the literary devices used in this poem has been stated below.

1. Metaphor: There are several metaphors used in this poem such as, “the Falcon” and “the falconer,” which stands for the world and the controlling force that directs humanity. Similarly, “the blood-dimmed tide” stands for waves of violence, while “the rough beast” stands for “the Second Coming.”
2. Hyperbole: Hyperbole is a device used to exaggerate a statement for the sake of emphasis. The poet has used hyperbole in the tenth line where it is stated as, “Surely the Second Coming is at hand,” as if the beast is about to enter the world in just a few hours or days.
3. Consonance: Consonance is the repetition of consonant sounds in the same line such as the sound of /r/ in “Were vexed to nightmare by a rocking cradle.”
4. Allusion: Allusion is an indirect reference to a person, place, thing or idea of a historical, cultural political or literary significance in a literary piece. The use of illusion in the fourth line of the second stanza is “the spiritus” It is an illusion to the Latin phrase meaning the world’s soul. “The Second Coming” is also a biblical allusion to the return of Christ.
5. Alliteration: Alliteration is the repetition of consonant sounds in the same line such as the sound of /s/ in “Troubles my sight: somewhere in sands of the” and /n/ sound in “The darkness drops again; but now I know.”
6. Symbolism: Symbolism is using symbols to signify ideas and qualities, giving them symbolic meanings that are different from the literal meanings. Yeats has used multiple symbols such as, “falcon” as the symbol of the world, “desert birds” are the symbols of approaching death and “the Second Coming” symbolizes the indifference.
7. Assonance: Assonance is the repetition of same vowel sounds in the same line such as the sound of /i/ in “Turning and turning in the widening gyre” and /e/ sound in “The ceremony of innocence is drowned.
8. Imagery: Imagery means the use of images of the five senses intended to make the readers understand the writer’s feelings and emotions. Yeats has used imagery to present the vivid and clear picture of the ominous beast such as, “A shape with lion body and the head of a man”, “somewhere in sands of the desert” and “Is moving its slow thighs.”

The literary analysis shows that Yeats has skillfully used some literary devices to discuss the reason why the world is going astray. The effective use of these devices and clarity of subject matter have made the poem thoughtful for the readers.

Reference: https://literarydevices.net/the-second-coming/

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Yeats’ ambivalence towards Irish nationalism in “September 1913” and “Easter 1916”

 William Butler Yeats, who is accepted both in English and Irish Canons, is one of the outstanding figures of the twentieth century literature. His differing ideas on various subjects have always attracted the attention of the readers of his time and today. One of the themes that have great influence on his poetry is Irish nationalism. Some people regard him as the greatest poet of his country; he is labeled as a British supporter by the others. Yeats describes his nationalism as an intellectual act rather than political. Yeats’ reflected ambivalence towards Irish nationalism in “Easter 1916”.

In “Easter 1916”, which was written after the Easter Rising in Dublin, a more consentient tone is used. It can be said that Yeats used a softer language to criticize Irish nationalism in “Easter 1916”. The poem was written to praise the Irish nationalists that were executed after the Easter Rising, a bloodshed memory in history. In fact, while glorifying these people, Yeats is critical about nationalism and the use of violence for independence, so the poem portrays Yeats’ “sincerity and complexity” about the rising. Moreover, Yeats’s “strong opposition to the violent political struggle as a means for Irish independence made him uncertain about the justice and success of the rebels’ cause”. Therefore, the whole poem reflects Yeats’ ambiguous feelings towards this rebellion.

Seamus Deane claims that “Yeats began his career by inventing an Ireland amenable to his imagination. He ended by finding an Ireland recalcitrant to it”. As things did not go in accordance with his expectations, Yeats had conflicting thoughts about Irish nationalism.

Like the previous one, Yeats starts the poem by mentioning the so-called Paudeens, the middle-class people whom he regarded as “unredeemable from the things of earth because of their fear of death” before the rising. He says:

“Coming with vivid faces /From counter or desk among grey / Eighteenth-century houses” (lines 2-4).

It is understood from the very beginning that though Yeats does not have a close friendship with these nationalistic people as he greets them with “polite meaningless words”, he knows them personally. In “Easter 1916” Yeats talks about them in a more favourable way by using “vivid faces” at the opening. The ending of the first stanza summarizes the bitter truth both for these people and for Ireland. Yeats concludes as

Being certain that they and I But lived where motley is worn:

All changed, changed utterly

A terrible beauty is born” (Lines 13-6).

Upon the executions of these nationalists, Ireland has changed that it has a glorious but a bloody history. Though Yeats has always ignored these middle-class patriots before the rebellion, the present situation makes him change his idea about them. Yeats finishes the stanza with an oxymoron to reflect his opposing ideas, and describes the aftermath of the rising as a “terrible beauty”.

Unlike the first stanza, in which Yeats talks about middle-class nationalists in general, in the second one Yeats mentions four specific Irish revolutionists. The first one is Countess Markiewicz, a member of aristocracy. Yeats describes her voice as “shrill” (line 20) while she talks about political issues to emphasize his disapproval of her ultra-nationalism. Yeats believes that women should not take part in political issues at that extreme.

In the following stanza, Yeats contrasts the unchanging determinism of nationalists with the changing life. He says,

“Enchanted to a stone / To trouble the living stream” (lines 43-4).

Yeats creates an ambivalent atmosphere in this stanza because after glorifying the union of the rebels under a common goal, he compares their extreme idealism to stone for criticism. According to Khan the stone “symbolizes not only the single-minded dedication of the rebels and the seriousness of their purpose but also the rigidity and inflexibility of their political intent”. For Yeats, these people are so enraptured with the idea of nationalism that, they do not question anything while acting.

The stone imagery continues in the last stanza with a striking criticism about the nationalists that too much of a dedication to patriotism makes people senseless. Its consequences are so severe that he asks

“O when may it suffice?” (line 59).

Yeats uses a metaphor for the rebels, resembling them to children who “had run wild” to defend their country. In this part, Yeats also contributes a maternal feature to Ireland and Irish people as he tries to assert that their motherland and their people will always remember them by commemorating them like a mother who “names her child” (line 62).

In the following part of the fourth stanza, after praising these nationalists, Yeats is doubtful about the necessity of this rising, and he starts with a shocking questions,

“Was it needless death after all?” (line 67).

 

It is clear that Yeats is in a conflict as he is not one-sided about the event. He is curious about whether or not British Government would grant their independence without this uprising. In fact, he cannot decide where to stand; on the side of Irish nationalists or being against them.

Yeats ends his poem in commemoration of the nationalists by naming them one by one. He does not mention Constance as she was not executed and was released after a year. He states that Irish people will remember these martyrs “Wherever green is worn” (line 78) because they sacrificed themselves for their country, their people and their flag.

William Butler Yeats, who is accepted both in English and Irish canons, is one of the outstanding figures of twentieth century literature. One of his popular themes is Irish nationalism, which causes opposing ideas among critics and reading population because while expressing his ideas on this subject, he has always been dubious about the acts. Therefore, his ideas on Irish nationalism have been reflected in an ambivalent manner.

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Explanation: Being certain that they and I But lived where motley is worn: All changed, changed utterly: A terrible beauty is born.

  The speaker had nothing more serious on his mind than a joke because he thought that they all were just living regular, unimportant lives. Now, though, everything is completely, totally different. Some events have occurred that were highly destructive but also helped bring about profound change. Easter Rising has changed everything. The speaker acknowledges that Irish history will be forever transformed by the event of Easter Rising. A terrible beauty is born is an oxymoron. Terrible and beauty are opposite sentiments and speak about the concept of the sublime in which horror and beauty can exist simultaneously. The Easter Rising was terrible because of its violence and loss of life, but the beauty was in the dream of independence.

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Discuss W. B. Yeats as a poet of Irish nationalism

 Introduction

W. B. Yeats (1865 – 1939) was first and foremost an Irish poet with a great love for his country. He was basically a patriotic poet rather than a nationalist movement aimed at freeing Ireland from English rule. The poet consciously revives Irish myth, folklore, saga, and legends in his poetry to show the rich cultural heritage of Ireland.

The theme of Irish Nationalism

In some of his poems, Yeats introduces the theme of Irish nationalism and the events related to it. His sense of nationalism and patriotic fervor is evident in “Easter 1916”. The poet here shows his veneration to the Irish nationalists who laid out their lives for the sake of their country. On Easter morning of 1916, Irish nationalists launched a revolt against the British government. The revolt was unsuccessful and a number of nationalists were executed. Yeats knew some rebels personally. In this poem, he mentions their names – Conolly, Gore-booth, Patrick Pearse, Thomas MacBride, and Major John MacBride. It may be that those persons had led a comic and ordinary life earlier. But their sacrifice has given meaning to their lives and as a result, a terrible beauty is born. These people are like stone. A stone in-stream is not subject to the change. In the same way, these people embody the eternal human quality – sacrificing one’s life for the sake of others. Their permanent stone-like quality can trouble the lives of other people. This why the poet says;

“Heart with one purpose alone

Through summer and winter seem enchanted to a stone

To trouble the living stream.”

Such praise to the nationalists reveals Yeats’ patriotic zeal. Yeats’ poem “September 1913”, “To a Friend whose Work has Come to Nothing”, “To a Shade”, and many other poems are written with patriotic fervor for his country.

Anarchy of imperialism

Yeats’ poem “The Second Coming” deals with the idea that history and civilization move in a cyclical course with regular ups and downs. Yeats seems to say that the best moment of Christian civilization is coming to an end, paving the way for disorder and chaos.

“Things fall apart, the center cannot hold;

Mere anarchy is loosed upon the world ….”

It may seem that the poet is hinting at the anarchy in Ireland caused by the imperial rule of England.

Representation of Irish countryside

Yeats’ patriotic fervor finds expression in his attempt to highlight the countryside, folklore, tradition, mythology, and above all the culture of Ireland. Yeats spent his boyhood and youth in the countryside of Sligo from where he got the knowledge of the peasants and their folklore. These folk elements abound in Yeats’ poetry. For example, his poems “The Madness of King Goll” and “Easter 1916” rest on the Irish legend. Again, the poem “The Wild Swans at Coole”, “A Prayer for My Daughter”, and “Lake Isle of Innisfree” combine Irish countryside with Irish folk beliefs and legends. “The Wilde Sawn at Coole” captures the serene beauty of nature. As the poet says:

“The trees in the autumn beauty,

The woodland paths are dry,

Under the October twilight the water

Mirrors a still sky”.

In this way, the subject matter of Yeats’ poetry is closely woven into the natural landscape of Ireland.

Irish culture and tradition

Yeats Highlights the long-cherished customs and traditions of Ireland. He possessed deep-rooted respect for the Irish aristocracy. In “A Prayer for My Daughter”, he wants for her daughter a husband whose family would respect traditional custom, as the poet asks:

“How but in custom and in ceremony

Are innocence and beauty born?”.

Yeats seems to say that the Irish tradition, customs, literature, and art are part of its long-cherished culture. Yeats’ poem ceaselessly focuses on those aspects of Irish culture and thus he helps his countrymen to imagine Ireland as a nation.

Conclusion

From the above discussion, it is evident that Yeats feels an inherent love for his country. In his personal life as well as in his works, he does not hesitate to show his love for Ireland. He deals with the issue of the political independence of Ireland. At the same time, he focuses on the Irish culture richness, by presenting its folklore, legend, myths, and history. All these show his emotional ties with his country. Undoubtedly, he is a patriotic poet.

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Analysis of "Relic" by Ted Hughes

 "Relic" by Ted Hughes is a descriptive poem. It lays its setting to the sea with irregular end rhyme patterns and two stanzas of an unequal number of lines. Based on observation of naijapoets.com.ng, Hughes made use of imaginative description; he told an undefined entity how the jawbone got to the sea as if he witnessed it "broken by the breakers or tossed/ To flap for half an hour and turn to a crust" but the use of "or" between "breakers or tossed" showed that his description was imaginative.

The poem is about a jawbone found deep down the sea. If one claims that Ted Hughes had love for water, sailing and the things relating to the sea; it will not be disputed. He told of how he found the jawbone, how it was thrust, living in the sea among other things like claws, skulls, crabs, dogfish, etc. He told of how the jawbone lived gnawing and stretching to feed but later ended at the beach. The poet described the deep sea as a battleground where friendship does not exist "In that darkness camaraderie does not hold" (line 5) then at the end line of the poem tagged the jawbone "a cenotaph". From lines 14-16, he claimed that nothing gets better in the sea and thereby described the sea's digestion of things into its seabed as its biggest achievement.

The tittle of the poem generalized the interest of the poet. The first stanza of the poem is 11 lines while the second stanza is 5 lines; which looked like the summary of the first stanza. Grammatically, the clause "I found this jawbone" made it look spoken than written, as if someone was standing in front of the poet and could as well see the jawbone himself/herself. "Continue the beginning" sounds poetic genius, which means "lets go back to the description of the sea". Besides the large use of imagery, personification existed in great amount from line 6-9 "And the jaws, Before they are satisfied or their stretched purpose/ Slacken, go down jaws; go gnawn bare. Jaws/ Eat and are finished and the jawbone comes to the beach". Line 12 "Time in the sea eats its tail," happens to be personification as well. "This curved jawbone did not laugh" is also a personification.

The jawbone was described in many forms, he symbolised it in different ways by calling it "Indigestibles" in line 13. It was metaphorically called a cenotaph: "A cenotaph is a monument erected to honour the dead whose bodies lie elsewhere; especially members of the armed forces who died in battle".

"In that darkness" symbolized the sea, "The deep" also symbolized the sea. Other poetic devices in the poem are enjambments, alliterations, etc.

Few among the many themes to deduce from this poem is the longevity in things than beings, the unwholesome experience deep down the sea, and the havoc of duration. In accordance with the description of the poet, the jawbone had lasted very farther than the animal that owned it

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Main Theme of the poem “The Jaguar” by Ted Hughes

The Jaguar is basically a description and observation of behaviour of the animals in a zoo. For Hughes the jaguar is a symbol of an idealist revolutionary, on the other hand the apes are the powerless human beings. Although they reside in the same zoo, i.e. “The world”, the difference between these two is remarkable. The Jaguar is confined in a cage. But as an idealist hero he does not consider himself to be imprisoned. Because in his thought and action he is free on the other hand the apes, being very similar to human beings, are observing him from a distant place. For a person who is free in mind everything is possible. He can never be dominated. So is true to the Jaguar in the poem.

The Jaguar stands amongst the best of Hughes' symbolic poems. The poem is basically a description and observation of behaviour of the animals in a zoo. It compares the apes, parrots, tiger, lion and a boa constrictor to the jaguar. However, the best comparison has been made between the Jaguar and the apes. For Hughes the jaguar is a symbol of an idealist revolutionary, on the other hand the apes are the powerless human beings. Although they reside in the same zoo, i.e. “The world”, the difference between these two is remarkable.

The Jaguar is confined in a cage. But as an idealist hero he does not consider himself to be imprisoned. Because in his thought and action he is free on the other hand the apes, being very similar to human beings, are observing him from a distant place. They are timid, not only in their action but in their thought too.

For a person who is free in mind everything is possible. He can never be dominated. So is true to the Jaguar in the poem. However, as it is confined in a zoo, it does not consider the cage his prison. Rather, “As a child, at dream” the Jaguar can find the way of freedom. Since it does not care this temporary prison of the world, a clear invocation of an ideal revolutionary's dream and thought is narrated aptly in the poem.

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Preface to Lyrical Ballads

 v Introduction :-

                      William Wordswords, English poet, nature’s priest, the greatest and in the end, the most influetial of the English. Romantic was born in 1770 and died in 1850. Wordsworth began his literary career at quit an early age when he was yet a student at Hawkshed Grammar School.

v His two poems are:-

Ø An evening walk (1793)

Ø Descriptive Sketches (1793)

                   Which he wrote as a University student, are worthy of notice. These poems may not be having any originally in style, but they show the poet’s love for nature.

Preface to the “Lyrical Ballads”:-

                   The first fruits of his genius were given out in “The Lyrical Ballads” published in 1798. It was a joint venture by Coleridge and Wordsworth. The publication of this monumental work ushered in the new era of romanticism in poerty and smashed the old, artificial, superfluous and hackneyed theory of English poerty of the previous age. The second edition was published in 1800 with many new poems added, and a much loner and more detailed preface was revised and enlarged for the 1802 edition. Wordsworth added a long account of the nature and function of a poet.

                             The first edition of the Lyrical Ballads consisted 23 poems of which 19 were from Wordsworth pen and they are :- ‘The Idiot Boy’, ‘We are Seven’, ‘The Tharn’, and some Lucy poems etc…..

                             And from Coleridge’s fertile imagination and they are:- ‘The Ancient Mariner’, ‘The Foster –mother’s tale’, ‘The Nightinagle and The Dungeon’. The preface begins with sufficient boldness and originality. The preface is one of the masterpieces of English criticism, it is intelligent, subtle, yet extremlly clear and provocative. 

   Why did Wordsworth write preface?

                  Wordsworth was not in favour of writing a preface. The first edition of his poems had only a brief Advertisement. He added a preface to the second edition of the Lyrical Ballads on the advice and insistence of his friends. Wordsworth wrote the preface with a view to provide a kind of introduction to his poems and they differ from the popular tradition of the age. In the nature and function of poerty and poetic process, the qualification of a poet and the poetic truth. He regards poerty, superiors to philosophy history and science. In a way the preface is a landmark in the history of literary criticism.

   The preface, Its varied Themes.:-

                               The preface makes, very simply, the following points:-

Ø The subject matter of poerty is whatever interest the humanmind

Ø The Lyrical Ballads are written as experiments, to try out the use of the language of conversation of real people in poery.
       

Ø They are new and unusual, and will not ‘suit the taste’ of most readers.

Ø Neverthless, the reader is asked try them with an open mind and not to be put off at first sight without giving a fair trial.

              They are the basis of argument of the longer preface.

   Humble and rustic life :-

                  According to Wordsworth his main object in writing these poems has been to choose incidents and situation from comman life, and to relate or describe them as far as possible in a selection of language really used by men. Humble and rustic life has been choosen by him for the following reason.

   In humble and rustic life, the essential passions of human heart find and unrestrained, free and frank expression.

   The essential passions of the human heart exist in a state of greater simplicity in the humble and rustic condition as compared to sophisticated city-life.

   The manners of rustic life are more easily comprehended, and are more durable.

   In rustic condition, human passions are associated with the beautiful and permanent forms of nature.

               “Wordsworth has used language and situation from low and rustic life because in low and rustic life man is more simple, more direct, near to his own elemental passions and less affected and artificial in the way he express his passions.’’

              Poerty does not require specifically poetic subject. It does not deal with the grand or the dignified or the sensational, but with permanent enduring interests of the human heart.

   Language and style of poetry:-

                              Wordsworth points out that some of his contemporaries have introduced triviality and meanness of thought and language in their metrical compositions. Feelings are more important than action and situation. Wordsworth is not favour of sensationalism. He says that the human mind  can be excited without the application of grows and violent stimulants. He avoided personification of abstract ideas, the mechanical devices of style, and what is generally called poetic diction and a large portion of phrases and figures of speech which had been foolishly repeated by bad poet. According to Wordsworth

                           “there neither is nor can be, any essential difference between the language of prose and metrical composition.”

   Wordsworth’s Theory of poetry:-

                        Wordsworth goes on to say that

                                      “The clear springs of poetry must flow freely and spontaneously it can not be made to flow through artificially laid pipes……. Poerty is born, not in the mind, but in the heart overflowing with feeling.”

                     Poetry, says Wordsworth, “is produced by man, who being possessed, had also thought long and deeply.”

                      Poetry is an overflow of powerful emotion in one who has thought long and deeply. The sequence of events described in the production of poetry seems to go something like this:-

o   a notable experience

o   deep and long contemplation

o   a period of tranquility

o   sudden overflow of power feelings as the notable experience is recaptured and recreated.

o   Shaping of the poem, hardly touched on in the preface excepts as a transition in the pleasure of the poet.

o   Pleasure for the reader, who enjoys the original experience vicariously in his experience of the created poem.  

   Spontaneous over of power feelings:-

                     According to Wordsworth, poetry is the spontaneous overflow powerful feelings. And it refers to the nature of poetry and if flows from the internal feelings of the poet. In a poetic mood, poetry flows out naturally from the poet’s heart. In such moments, his language of discourse becomes the language of poetical inspiration.

                       Wordsworth talks of ‘expressing powerful feeling’ felt in the heart and in the generated in the mind. Poetry takes its birth in the springs of the heart and not in the cold store of the intellect according to Wordsworth deep emotion is the fundamental condition of poetry he discards Aristotellian doctrine.Wordsworth himself says that

                        “the feeling there in developed gives importance to the action and situation, and not the action and situation to the feeling.”

                  Wordsworth says “A poet must be man possessed of more than usual organic sensibility.” Organic sensibility means or implies the capacity to receive impression through the senses. The emotion is contemplated till, by a species of reaction, the tranquility gradually disappears, and emotion, kindred to that which was before the subject of contemplation, is gradually produced and does itself actually exist in successful composition generally begins, and in a mood similar to this it is carried on . Wordsworth could follow his theory of poetry but to make a general statement that all poetry is the recollection not true.            

   The end or function of poetry:-

                Poetry is not a dish for epicurean taste, according to Wordsworth ‘poetry is the breath and finer sprit of the all knowledge the impassioned expression that is in the countenance of all science.” Poetry seeks to ennoble and edity. The poet, through his poetry imports moral lessons for the betterment of humanlife. Wordsworth says that

                           “a poetry of revolt against moral ideas is a poetry of revolt against life, a poetry of indifference towards moral ideas is a poetry of indifference towards life.”

                          Wordsworth is precise and emphatic in stating that pleasure is the of poetry “The end of poetry is to produce existanse with an overbalance of pleasure.”

   What is poet?

§  Wordsworth defines poet as ‘a man speaking to man’. He is endowed with more lively sensibility, more enthusiasm and tenderness.

§  He has a man pleased with his own passions and volitions and who rejoices more than other men in the spirit of life that is the delighting to contemplate similar volitions and passions as manifested in the goings on of the universe, and habitually compelled to create them where he does not find them.

§  He has a greater knowledge of human nature and a more compressive soul, than once supposed to be comman among mankind.

·       He has an ability of conjuring up in himself passions, which are indeed far from being those produced by real events. He can better  remember the passions produced by real events  which other men are accustomed to feel in themselves .

§  Then, from practice, he has acquired a greater readiness and power in expressing what he thinks and feels, and especially those thoughts and feelings which by his own choice, or from the structure of his own mind, arise in him without immediate external excitement.

   Wordsworth’s theory of poetic diction:-

                               Wordsworth goes on to says that

                            “The principal object proposed in these poems was to choose incidents and situations from commanlife, and to relate describe them throughout as far as this was possible in a selection of language really used by men” and at the same time, “to throw over them a certain colouring of the imagination” where by ordinary things  should be presented to the mind an unusual aspects. The language of these men has been adopted because such men communicate with the best objects from which the best part of language originally derived.

   Main principles of poetic diction:-

                     There is no vital difference between the language of poetry and the impassioned and purified language of comman speech.In other words, the language of poetry should be a selection of the language really used by men.

   It should be “the language of men in a state of vivid sensation”

   It should have “a certain colouring of imagination .

   There is no essential difference between the language of prose and the language of metrical composition.

                              What Wordsworth means is that the words used in conversation, if they are properly selected, would provide the rough frame work of the language of poetry , only the latter is heightened by feeling and emotion.

   Coleridge criticises the preface:-

                                   The task for Coleridge was not an easy one since he was an equal partner in the enterprise of the Lyrical Ballads and his close and long association with Wordsworth made the frank expression of adverse opinion extremely delicate to Wordsworth’s views on the comman language in poetry is:-

·       These views are applicable only to some kinds of poetry.

·       Even to these classes they are not applicable, except in such a sense, as has never by any one been denied or doubted.

·       As a rule they are useless if not injurious and, therefore, either need not or ought not to be practiced.

                       In this way Coleridge’s attack on Wordsworth continues even in chapter 18of the Biographia Literaria. Coleridge denies that the words and their combination derived from the best part of the rustic is the familiar, can be justly  said to form the best part of the language. Refuting Wordsworth’s statement that there is no essential defferance between the language of prose and metrical composition. Coleridge says that though the words may be quite ordinary, their arrangement is not as he says there are phrases which, beautiful in poetry, are quite inappropriate in prose and Vice-Versa. He says

                      “I write in metre because I about to use a language different from that of prose”

  Accoding to Coleridge,

                       “metre is the proper form of poetry and poetry is imperfect and defective with outmetre”    

   Wordsworth’s practice of his theory:-

In the Preface Wordsworth professes to have sought to use

“a selection of the language really used by men” and this chiefly “in humble and rustic life”

            But in his practice, the language of rustic life gradually disappeared from                     his work, and was only formally retained in his theory.

For example:-

                 Poems like “The Intimation ode” needed a language coloured by emotional fervour and vigorous imagination. Hence Wordsworth was mistaken in making a sweeping generalization for all types of common speech. There are scores of poems like ‘Lucy Gray’, ‘The Solitary Reaper’, ‘Michael’ etc…  which triumphantly vindicate his theory of poetic diction.

   Conclusion:-

       Through, the Preface, Wordsworth creates a taste by which he is read and enjoyed. The Preface is the most eloquent as well as the most reasoned statement of the aims and ideals of a poet that we have in language. It is full of carefully psychological observations and profound self-analysis.

According to Smith and Parks

      “It raised a wall between the 18^th and 19^th centuries, it dated a new era- it served to make intelligible for ever the dividing line between the two regions in criticism that might otherwise have seemed to flow into one another we do not often have many such dividing walls.” 

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